Attributive (participial) derivate from existential verb le- 'to be, to exist', lit. 'the existing'. With human plural gender marking, the word is le-b-žu-b. le- is a Common Dargwa existential root meaning location near the hearer or general existence, but there is no proto-form provided in [NCED]. The suffix -žu- (sg. -zi-) is specific to Shiri; other varieties mostly use the attributive -il in the word for 'all'. The etymology *lepː 'all' in [NCED] is thus incorrect.
Attributive (participial) derivate from existential verb le- 'to be, to exist', lit. 'the existing'. With human plural gender marking, the word is le-b-il.
Attributive (participial) derivate from existential verb li- 'to be, to exist', lit. 'the existing'. With human plural gender marking, the word is li-b-il. A variant form (less frequently used) is li-class-heːl.
Paradigm: arc-an [sg.] / arc-an-ti [pl.]. Habitual participle from arc- 'to fly', lit. 'flyer'. Since Shiri normally uses a different verb for the meaning 'to fly' q.v., we probably deal here with a borrowing from Standard Dargwa, as suggested by D. Ganenkov (p.c.). Native Shiri vocabulary may not have had a common word for 'bird' as such.
Complex verb consisting of (onomatopoeic?) cuc and class=ikʼʷ- 'to speak', which is a regular pattern in Dargwa. No known etymology.
Amuzgi:cuc-la-class-arqʼ1
Complex verb consisting of (onomatopoeic?) cuc-la, probably genitive of cuc (attested in other dialects), and class=arqʼ- 'to do', which is a regular pattern in Dargwa.
Ashti:sus-či-class-ikː-1
Complex verb consisting of (onomatopoeic?) sus and či-class=ikː- 'to give' (?), anterior in -un. In the imperfective, the light verb is či-class=ax- 'to go', simultaneous in -u.
Past participle from the verb class=erχː /class=uχː 'to get cold'. Exact PD etymology is uncertain, cf. PD *class=arʁʷˤ- 'to get cold, freeze' and *class=aχːˤ- 'to get cold, freeze'.
Amuzgi:class=erχː-ib1
Past participle from verb class=erχː /class=uχː 'to get cold'.
Ashti:class=eːχ-ib1
Anterior participle-converb from verb class=eːχː / class=uχː 'to get cold'.
Number:16
Word:come
Shiri:sa=class=eʁ-1
Paradigm: sa=class=eʁ- [pfv.] / sa=class=irʁ- [ipfv.], anterior in -ib. Etymology uncertain, but may possibly be related to Akusha class=aʔ 'to reach' and thus PD *=aʔ-/=iʔ-.
Amuzgi:saˤqʼˤ-2
Paradigm: saˤqʼˤ- [pfv.] / saˤqʼˤ- [ipfv.], anterior in -un. May be related to PD *=uqʼˤan-, although the roots for movement verbs in -qʼ- with and without the class marker are usually distinct.
Perfective, anterior in -ib. With masculine and feminine class markers, subject to regular sandhi: sačʼ-i [masc.], seːčʼ-i [fem.], sa-b-ačʼ-i [neut., hum. pl.].
Imperfective, simultaneous in -u. With masculine and feminine class markers, subject to regular sandhi: sax-ul [masc.], seːx-ul [fem.], sa-b-ax-ul [neut., hum. pl.].
Paradigm: ʡiħ- [sg.], ʡiːħ- [pl.], anterior in -ib. The unclear phonetic correspondences with Shiri and Amuzgi do not allow us to classify these items as cognates.
Paradigm: bekʼ [sg.], bikʼ-urbe [pl.]. Concerning the plural marker -urbe: historically, the plural affix was probably just -be, but synchronically the suffix is no longer segmentable.
Paradigm: class=aqʼ- [pfv.] / class=iqʼ- [ipfv.], anterior in -ib. Often functions as a complex verb with the nominal component tʼam 'sound' (lit. 'hear a sound').
Paradigm: tʼam-class-aqʼ- [pfv.] / tʼam-class-iqʼ- [ipfv.], anterior in -ib. Complex verb, lit. 'hear sound', but the light verb is not used independently. The gender agreement is with t'am 'sound' and can only be neuter singular (b-) or neuter plural (d-). The stimulus is expressed as the genitive possessor of tʼam, i.e. 'I hear you' is lit. “I hear your sound”.
Paradigm: ka-xʷ- [pfv.] / ka-r-ixʷ [ipfv.], anterior in -ib. ka- is a fused directional preverb, -r- is a regular "prothetic" consonant used when a vowel-final preverb is attached to a vowel-initial verb stem without a gender marker. The PD reconstruction *-awš(ː)- 'kill' does not seem correct, and x > š in Akusha is probably secondary. The reconstruction should rather be *axʷ-/ixʷ-, or something similar.
Paradigm: class=aχː- [pfv.] / class=uχː- [ipfv.], anterior in -ur. The reconstructed ipfv. *=uχːVl- is very doubtful. It is based on Chirag class=uχːul- which is really just the root =uχː- together with the common Dargwa present/simultaneous participle suffix -u and the converb suffix -l. This is the standard way of forming the present tense of the majority of verbs in Southern Dargwa varieties. Aqusha class=al- must be explained by some other means.
Paradigm: ka=class=isː- [pfv.] / ka=class=ilsː- [ipfv.], anterior in -un. Spatial preverbs other than ka- 'down' can occasionally be used. Inchoative verb. Etymology unclear. May continue PD *=isːVn-/*=usː(Vn)- 'to sleep', but Shiri =elsː-/=usː- 'to sleep' q.v. is a more likely reflex both in form and in meaning.
Amuzgi:ka=class=isː-1
Paradigm: ka=class=isː- [pfv.] / ka=class=ilsː- [ipfv.], anterior in -un. Spatial preverbs other than ka- 'down' can occasionally be used. Inchoative verb.
Ashti:ka=class=isː-1
Paradigm: ka=class=isː- [pfv.], ka=class=ilsː- [ipfv.], anterior in -un. Spatial preverbs other than ka- 'down' can occasionally be used. Inchoative verb.
Used either adverbally, in the form χːe-l, or attributively, with the group suffix -class-a, e.g. χːe-d-a qːaːqːa 'many stones'. Etymology unknown; perhaps related to PD *χ:ʷala-?
Literally 'lips', pl. of kʼʷintʼ 'lip'. Used for both outer parts of the mouth and for the oral cavity, but a separate word for the oral cavity also exists.
Paradigm: dukːi [sg.] / dukː-urbi [pl.]. Concerning the plural marker -urbi: historically, the plural affix was probably just -bi, but synchronically the suffix is no longer segmentable.
Paradigm: qˤʷaqˤʷ [sg.] / qˤuqˤ-bi ~ qˤunqˤ-upːi [pl.]. The second pl. variant retains the original -n- of the root, while the first variant is a new formation from the singular.
Paradigm: qˤʷaqˤʷ [sg.] / qˤuqˤ-urbe ~ qˤunqˤ-upːe [pl.]. The second pl. variant retains the original -n- of the root, while the first variant is a new formation from the singular.
The variant a- is used only in a limited set of partly fossilized words, e.g. a-b-ikː-i '(I) don't want'. The prohibitive is ma-. On some verb forms, negation is marked by reduplication of the verb stem.
Paradigm: marka [sg.] / mark-urbi [pl.]. Concerning the plural marker -urbi: historically, the plural affix was probably just -bi, but synchronically the suffix is no longer segmentable.
Paradigm: yaˤmħiˤ [sg.] / yaˤmħ-ni [pl.]. Also attested is tum, pl. tum-ri, specifically denoting deep roots of trees and plants below the ground; the word also means 'source'.
Polysemy: 'round 3D / round 2D'. Clearly related to gulgul in other dialects, although whether the relation is due to metathesis or parallel onomatopoeic development is unclear.
Paradigm: ha=ʔ- [pfv.] / ha=r=iʔ [ipfv.], anterior in -ib. Irregular single-consonant stem, with fused preverb ha= 'up'. The insertion of -r- in ipfv. is a regular epenthesis.
Paradigm: class=uˤlħ- [pfv.] / class=uˤlħ- [ipfv.], anterior in -un. The etymological history of this root is unclear (see notes in the Dargwa etymological database).
Paradigm: class=elsː- [pfv.] / class=usː- [ipfv.], anterior in -un. Inchoative verb. Final *n in the proto-form is reflected in the use of -un to mark anterior and simultaneous participles (instead of the more common -ib/-u), although it is not clear whether this -n must be reconstructed as part of the root. The relation between this root and class=isː / class=ilsː 'to lie' q.v. is unclear.
Paradigm: beːgʷala [sg.] / beːgʷal-mi [pl.]. Possibly related to PD *ɣerɣʷa 'smoke' via the derivational suffix -ala, cf. Shiri bergʷa 'smoke', although the semantic shift seems unusual. Alternatively, may be a derivate from a hypothetical verbal root *class=ergʷ, cf. či-b-ut-ala 'rain' q.v., of identical derivation. However, no such root with the appropriate semantics is known.
Meaning 'that(horizontal plane)'. According to [NCED], it, unlike the two other distal demonstratives, continues PD *tV- 'demonstrative stem' < PNC *tV 'that (demonstrative pronoun)', even though the structure of the deictic roots follows exactly the same pattern. The reconstructed meaning for PD *tV- should also obviously be 'that (on horizontal plane)'.
Distinct from iχ 'that (below)' and ikʼ 'that (above)'.
Meaning specifically 'this (close to speaker)'. For Aqusha i-š, clearly cognate to Shiri iž, the reconstruction gives PD *ʔi- 'demonstrative stem', PNC *ʔi 'this'. However, the origin of -š/-ž is unclear. We may tentatively derive it from PD *ʔi-š or *ʔi-ž, but with no known PNC etymology.
Meaning specifically 'this (close to hearer)'. Apart from purely deictic use, this pronoun is also employed for textual anaphora. As the etymology, the reconstruction gives PD *ʔi-ɣ 'that, this (near to the speaker)'. Commentary: "In Ak. -l is secondary (probably from obl. cases like dative: Chir. iɣi-la)". The given Chirag form seems to be genitive, not dative. Furthermore, the secondary character of -l is very improbable, given that the form il is found in almost all dialects except for Chirag.
Paradigm: class=aˤrqʼ- [pfv.] / class=uˤqʼ- [ipfv.], anterior in -un. The NCED reconstruction is based on Chirag data, where the verb is used only in the imperative. However, this root is actually much more widespread in the southern varieties.
Meaning 'we (excl.)'. Paradigm: nusːa [abs., erg.] / nisːi- [obl.]. NCED's decision to treat nu- here as a reflex of *nu 'I' is doubtful: the latter form is confined to northern dialects and is most probably a secondary formation from *du (D. Ganenkov, p.c.). Furthermore, in Shiri nu- is also found in nušːa 'you (pl.)', which is hardly derivable from 'I' for semantic reasons.
Inflected like a Class II noun. The PD etymology includes the following commentary: "The Chir. form [ce. - O.B.] has a secondary affricate...". This is doubtful, considering that all known dialects which have not undergone the sound change /c/ > /s/ have /c/ in this word. If this change is secondary, it must have happened at the PD stage.
Adjective heq 'far' with adverbial suffix -li. Despite the similarity to PD *haraq 'far', this word cannot be derived from it, since the disappearance of *r and the change in vocalism would be inexplicable.
Ashti:hiq-li-class2
The essive form of the in localization, or adverbial form, of the adjective hiq 'far'. If this word were related to PD *haraq 'far', the regular Kubachi/Ashti loss of *r would have been followed by vowel lenghtening, and no change in vocalism would have happened, i.e. the root would have been #haːq.
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