There are two terms for 'woman': mˈʊl-ɪɛr {mulier} and fˈeːm-ɪn-a {femina}. In Plautus' texts {mulier} is much more frequent: it occurs about 300 times [Passera, 1998: 108], while {femina} occurs less than in twenty cases. As for the semantic difference, {femina} could be used in the meaning 'female': {ita illa me ab laeva rabiosa femina adservat canis} "so much does this raving mad female cur watch me on the left side" [Men. 837]; {AST. Mulieres volo convenire vostras. TRVC. Quas tu mulieres mihi narras, ubi musca nulla feminast in aedibus?} "AST. I want to meet with your women. STR. What women art thee talking to me about, when there's not even a single woman-fly within the house?" [Truc. 283-284]; {Nam audivi feminam ego leonem semel parire} "For I heard of a woman's once giving birth to a lion" [Vid.]. The following example should be also added here: {sumne probus, sum lepidus civis, qui Atticam hodie civitatem maximam maiorem feci atque auxi civi femina?} "Am I not a worthy man, am I not a courteous citizen, who this day have made the extensive state of Attica still larger, and increased it by a female citizen?" [Persa 474-475]. For this reason it is often contrasted with the word denoting 'man': nam tu quidem ad equas fuisti scitus admissarius, qui consectare qua maris qua feminas} "You have your hands quite full enough with the women" (literary: which chase both men and women) [Mil. 1111-1113]; {patefeci fores, eaque eduxi omnem legionem, et maris et feminas} "I opened the door; and by that road I led out all the troop, both men and women" [Most. 1046-1047]; {non hercle hisce homines me marem, sed feminam vicini rentur esse servi militis} " Faith, but these men here, these servants of my neighbour the Captain, take me not to be a man, but a woman, so much do they trifle with me" [Mil. 486-487]; {SCEP. Sed utrum tu masne an femina es, qui illum patrem voces? PL. Vir sum equidem} "SCEP. But whether are you male or female, who are calling him father? PL. Why really, I'm a man" [Rud. 105-106].
According to E. Passera, {femina} had a dignified meaning and was sometimes used with some positive epithets. There are indeed some such contexts, cf. {Da mi, optuma femina, manum} "Best of women, give me your hand" [Aul. 135]; {Bona femina et malus masculus volunt te} "A good female and a bad male want you" [Cist. 705]; {A luculenta atque festiva femina, quae te amat tuamque expetessit pulcram pulcritudinem} "From a charming and a handsome lady, one who loves you, and dotes upon your extreme beauty" [Mil. 958-959]; {Tum autem illa ipsa est nimium lepida nimisque nitida femina} "Troth, indeed, she has made an impression already, Palaestrio, at first sight" [Mil. 1003], but there are also examples to the contrary: {Feminam scelestam te astans contra contuor} "Standing opposite to you, looking at a worthless woman" [Persa 208]; {Mala tu femina es, oles unde es disciplinam} "You are an artful damsel" [Truc. 131].
The term {femina} could also be used in a generic meaning: {MERC. observatote <eum>, quam blande mulieri palpabitur. ALC. Ecastor te experior quanti facias uxorem tuam. IVPP. Satin habes, si feminarum nulla est quam aeque diligam?} "MERC. Do you observe him, how blandly he smoothes the lady over. ALC. I' faith, I find by experience how much you value your wife. JUP. If there is no one among women whom I love so much, are you satisfied?" [Amph. 505-507]; {nec me miserior femina est neque ulla videatur magis} "No woman is there more wretched than myself" [Amph. 1060]; {misericordior nulla me est feminarum} "no one among women is more compassionate than I" [Rud. 281].
As we can see, in Plautus' times {femina} and {mulier} started becoming synonymous, but this process was far from completion, and, very importantly, {femina} was much less frequent, so we include only {mulier} in the list. Some examples for {mulier} are: {qui omnis se amare credit, quaeque aspexerit mulier: eum oderunt qua viri qua mulieres} "who thinks that, whatever woman sees him, all are in love with him; whom all, both men and women, detest" [Mil. 1391-1392]; {plures viri sint vidui quam nunc mulieres} "there should be more divorced men than there are women now" [Merc. 829].
Late Classical Latin:mˈʊl-yɛr {mulier}1
Cf. some examples: {Proclamares saltem suppetiatum, si resistere vir tantus mulieri nequibas} "You could at least have shouted for help, if a great man like you couldn't handle the women by yourself" [Met. 1: 14]; {E re nata fallaciosa mulier temerarium tollens cachinnum: "Magnum" inquit "istum virum ac strenuum negotiatorem nacta sum, qui rem, quam ego mulier et intra hospitium contenta iam dudum septem denariis vendidi, minoris distraxit."} "A born deceiver, the wife gave a bold laugh, and said: 'What a brilliant husband I've got, a masterly negotiator! I, a mere woman, without stepping outside, just sold for seven denariisomething he's offloaded for less!'" [Met. 9: 6]; {video mulieres duas altioris aetatis} "I watched two women of rather ripe years" [Met. 1: 12]; {quamvis auro veste gemmis omnique cetero mundo exornata mulier incedat, tamen, nisi capillum distinxerit, ornata non possit audire} "such is the glory of a woman's hair that though she adorns herself with garments, gold and gems and other finery, unless her hair is groomed she cannot be called well-dressed" [Met. 2: 9]; {Quorum quidem unus caput mulieris, quae meum dorsum residebat repente percussit} "One of the latter struck the woman seated on my back" [Met. 8: 17].
The term fˈeːm-ɪn-a {femina} occurs as a complete synonym of {mulier}: {Nec illas scelestas feminas, quas tibi post internecivum odium et calcata sanguinis foedera sorores appellare non licet, vel videas vel audias} "Don't look at or listen to those evil women, who with their murderous hostility, their disregard of the bonds of blood, you should not call sisters" [Met. 5: 12]; {Tunc influunt turbae sacris divinis initiatae, viri feminaeque omnis dignitatis et omnis aetatis, linteae vestis candore puro luminosi} "A mighty throng of men and women of every age and rank, initiates of the sacred mysteries, poured on behind, their linen robes shining radiantly" [Met. 11: 10]. As for the frequency of this term, it had definitely shifted, compared with Plautus' times. The term {femina} occurs in 'Metamorphoses' about 35 times, whereas {mulier} is merely twice as frequent. Because of this, we include both terms in the list.
Distinct from ˈʊksɔr {uxor} 'wife': {Nam protinus uxor eius, avara equidem nequissimae illa mulier} "His wife, an avaricious, evil-minded woman" [Met. 7: 15].
Megleno Romanian:muʎˈar-i {muľári}1
Capidan 1935: 197.
Istro Romanian:žˈensk-ä {žénskę}-1
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 220; Byhan 1899: 289. Borrowed from Slovene {ženska} 'woman' or Croatian {ženska} 'female, woman's' (a feminine form of adjective {ženski}). Distinct from muʎäre {muľę́re} 'wife' [Kovačec 2010; Byhan 1899: 283]. Byhan also mentions the word žˈeɲe {žéńe} 'married woman' [Byhan 1899: 389], Weigand adds the word gospä {gospę} [Weigand, 1899: 397], both forms are absent from Kovačec's dictionary and from texts.
Aromanian:muʎˈe̯ar-e {muľeáre}1
Papahagi 1963: 711; Cunia 2010: 678-679; Dalametra 1906: 138; Bara et al. 2005: 346, 355; Goɫąb 1984: 236. Polysemy: 'woman / wife'. In the Turia dialect there is also another term, misˈokup-ǝ {misˈokupā} 'woman' [Bara et al. 2005: 346].
Romanian:femˈey-e {femeie}3
DER 2004: 1044-1045; Bolocan et al. 1985: 354; Gancz 2015. Goes back to the Latin {familia} 'family' [Ciorănescu 2015]. The original term {muiare} 'woman' has a pejorative shade in contemporary Standard Romanian [DEaLR 2015]. Distinct from soc-ˈie {soţie} 'wife' [DER 2004: 1040; Bolocan et al. 1985: 354]. Moldavian: femˈey-e {femeie} 'woman' [Podiko 1973: 207; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 111].
Dalmatian:muʎˈer {muľér} ~ moʎˈer {moľér}1
Polysemy: 'woman / wife'. Some examples are: {káu̯k fero tu͡ọnta żi̯ant; joi̯na kál fero tu͡ọnti jóṅ, ne la jultra kál fero tu͡ọnte muľér} "here are a lot of people, one part of us is a lot of men, the other is a lot of women" [Bartoli 2002: 251]; {toče le moľér stentúa: le arúa, le zapúa la tára toča ku̯anta e i ómiṅ tenúa la píp iṅ bu̯ák e kosái̯k i stùa da gu̯ardúrle} "all the women work; they plow, they dig all the ground and the men keep the pipes in their mouths and so they stand watching" [Bartoli 2002: 249].
Forni 2015; Gartner 1923: 12. Goes back to the Latin {illa} 'that / she'. Distinct from fˈǝn-a {fëna} 'wife' [Forni 2015].
Fassano Ladin:fˈemen-a {fémena}2
DILF 2001: 97. Polysemy: 'woman / wife'.
Rumantsch Grischun:fˈɛmn-ǝ {femna}2
Schmid 2015. Distinct from a polite term dˈɔn-ǝ {donna} 'madam'.
Sursilvan Romansh:fˈɛmn-ǝ {femna}2
Cadruvi 2015; Decurtins 2015. There are two expressions for 'woman' in Sursilvan: fˈɛmn-ǝ {femna} and dˈun-ǝ {dunna}. According to [Cadruvi 2015], they are synonyms. Distinct from kǝnˈɔsrt-ǝ {consorta} 'wife' [Cadruvi 2015].
Surmiran Romansh:fˈɛmn-ǝ {femna}2
Schmid 2015. Distinct from the polite term dˈun-ǝ {dunna} 'madam'.
There are two designations for 'woman' in Dante's works: fˈemːin-a {femmina} and dˈɔnː-a {donna}. The latter is much more frequent (9 : 96 in 'Divine Comedy'), but the distribution is important: in Inferno {donna} is used only 10 times out of 96, in Purgatorio it is already used 38 times, and half of its usage occurs in Paradiso. What we are actually dealing with is the gradual replacement of {femmina} by {donna}, but it seems that during Dante's life, this replacement had not yet been completed and {donna} still had "elevated" connotations. For a more detailed analysis, see [Passera 1998]. Because of this, we include only {femmina} in the list, as a term of broader and more neutral usage.
It is important that {femmina} can be used not only in stylistically low ({Via, // ruffian! qui non son femmine da conio} "Get thee gone // pander, there are no women here for coin" [Inf. 18]) or neutral contexts, but also in high ones: {Maria Vergine (femmina veramente e figlia di Giovacchino e d'Adamo)} "the Virgin Mary, the true woman and daughter of Joachim and of Adam" [Conv. 2], {che là dove ubidia la terra e 'l cielo, // femmina, sola e pur testé formata} "for there where earth and heaven obedient were, // the woman only, and but just created" (about Eve) [Purg. 29]. Oher contexts with {femmina}: {ciò avvenia di duol sanza martìri, // ch'avean le turbe, ch'eran molte e grandi, // d'infanti e di femmine e di viri} "and this arose from sorrow without torment, // which the crowds had, that many were and great, // of infants and of women and of men" [Inf. 4]; {poi che l'ardite femmine spietate // tutti li maschi loro a morte dienno} "after the daring women pitiless // had unto death devoted all their males" [Inf. 18]; {Vedi Tiresia, che mutò sembiante // quando di maschio femmina divenne} "Behold Tiresias, who his semblance changed, // when from a male a female he became" [Inf. 20]; {quanto in femmina foco d'amor dura} "how long in woman lasts the fire of love" [Purg. 8]; {mi venne in sogno una femmina balba} "there came to me in dreams a stammering woman" [Purg. 19]; {ne le femmine sue più è pudica // che la Barbagia dov' io la lasciai} "by far more modest in its women is // than the Barbagia I have left her in" [Purg. 23]; {Femmina è nata, e non porta ancor benda} "A maid is born, and wears not yet the veil" [Purg. 24].
Some contexts on {donna}: {e donna mi chiamò beata e bella} "and a fair, saintly Lady called to me" [Inf. 2]; {O donna di virtù sola per cui // l'umana spezie eccede ogne contento} "'O Lady of virtue, thou alone through whom // the human race exceedeth all contained" [Inf. 2]; {poscia che tai tre donne benedette} "seeing that three such Ladies benedight" [Inf. 2].
Standard Italian:dˈɔnː-a {donna}5
Passerini Tosi 1989: 2519. Distinct from fˈemːin-a {femmina} 'female' [Battaglia V: 803-805], from mˈoʎː-e {moglie} 'wife' and spˈɔz-a {sposa} 'wife, spouse' [Passerini Tosi 1989: 2511].
Grosseto Italian:dˈɔnː-a {donna}5
Marcelli 2015. Distinct from mˈoʎː-e {moglie} 'wife' [Marcelli 2015].
Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015; EDCC 1993: 197. Polysemy: 'woman / wife'. In the meaning ˈwifeˈ the word muʎˈer {muller} is used as well, especially in formal speech [Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015].
Leplubo 2016. Distinct from buʁž-wɛz {bourjouèse} 'wife' [Leplubo 2016].
Walloon:fam {fame}2
Mahin 2016. Polysemy: 'woman / wife'. Distinct from ku=meʀ {coumére} 'teenage girl / young not married woman / fiancée / girlfriend / virgin', which is the same as French {commère} 'gossip', derived from Vulgar Latin {commater} 'godmother'. Cf. some examples: {ça dvint ene pitite coumére} "she is turning to a woman" (about 13 years old girl); {Djan è ruvnu avu sa} "John came back with his girlfriend"; {èle est co coumére} "she is still a virgin" [Mahin 2016]. In Rifondou Walloon we observe another situation: ki=mɛʀ {kimere} ~ k=mɛʀ {kmere} ~ ko=mɛʀ {comere} is used as generic term for 'woman' and fɛm {feme} means 'wife', but due to French influence it started extending its meaning to 'woman' in the past decades [Mahin 2016].
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